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37 5.6 Temperature
Generally ocean temperatures range from about -2o to 30o C (28-86o F). The warmest water tends to be surface water in low latitude regions, while the surface water at the poles is obviously much colder (Figure 5.6.1). Note that at equivalent latitudes, water on the eastern side of the ocean basins is colder than the water on the western side. This has to do with the pattern of surface currents. Even though surface water can be quite warm, most of the water in the oceans is deeper, colder water, so that the average temperature of the entire ocean is about 4o C, which is roughly the temperature inside your refrigerator.
Figure 5.6.1 Global average annual sea surface temperature (Stephen Earle, “Physical Geology”).
A typical temperature profile for open ocean, mid-latitude water is shown in Figure 5.6.2. Water is warmest at the surface, as it is warmed by the sun, and the sun’s rays can only penetrate depths less than 1000 m. Since the surface water is warmer it is also less dense than the deep water, so it remains at the surface where it can be warmed even more. Temperature is fairly constant in the upper 100-200 m in what is called the mixed layer. The mixed layer results from surface winds, waves, and currents that mix the upper water and distribute the heat throughout this layer. Below the mixed layer there is a rapid decline in temperature over a fairly narrow increase in depth. This is called the thermocline. Below the thermocline the deep ocean temperature is fairly constant at about 2o C, continuing down to the bottom. There is little temperature change in the deep ocean, as it is far removed from significant heat sources, making it one of the most thermally stable regions on earth. Temperature may fluctuate by less than half a degree per year in the deep ocean (Figure 5.6.3).
Figure 5.6.2 Typical open ocean temperature profile for a mid-latitude region, showing the mixed layer, steep thermocline, and relatively stable temperature at depth (Public domain via Wikimedia Commons).Figure 5.6.3 Temperature profile across the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of Florida to the coast of Africa (inset). There is rapid temperature change near the surface in the thermocline zone, but the deep water temperature is fairly stable (eWOCE, http://www.ewoce.org/gallery/eWOCE_Tables.html#Atlantic).
Temperature profiles vary at different latitudes, as the surface water is warmer near the equator and colder at the poles. In low latitude tropical regions the sea surface is much warmer, leading to a highly pronounced thermocline (Figure 5.6.4). Additionally, there is not much seasonal change in surface temperature in tropical regions, so there is little seasonal change in the profiles. In high latitude (polar) regions, there is little difference between the surface temperature and the deep water temperature, and temperature is fairly constant (and cold) at all depths. Polar waters therefore lack a strong thermocline, and as with tropical water, there is little seasonal change in temperatures. Mid-latitude temperate regions show greater seasonal fluctuations in surface temperature than the poles or the tropics; an 8-15o C difference from summer to winter in temperate zones, compared to only ~2o C in polar and tropical areas. In temperate regions, the surface water is much warmer in the summer and the thermocline is more pronounced compared to the winter months. But in the winter the thermocline is deeper at mid-latitudes than it is in the summer. This is because winter storms churn up the surface water more than occurs in the summer, creating a deeper mixed layer and thus a deeper thermocline (Figure 5.6.5).
Figure 5.6.4 Representative temperature profiles for tropical, mid-latitude, and polar regions (PW).Figure 5.6.5 In temperate regions, the mixed layer is deeper and the thermocline less pronounced in the winter compared to the summer (PW).
Due to the high heat capacity of water, daily fluctuations in ocean temperature are fairly insignificant.
With so many variables playing a role in the production of tides, it is understandable that not every place on Earth will experience exactly the same tidal conditions. There are three primary classifications for tides, depending on the number and relative heights of tidal cycles per day.
A diurnal tide consists of only one high tide and one low tide per day (Figure 3.7.1). "Diurnal" refers to a daily occurrence, so a situation where there is only one complete tidal cycle per day is considered a diurnal tide. Diurnal tides are common in the Gulf of Mexico, along the west coast of Alaska, and in parts of Southeast Asia.
Figure 3.7.1 A diurnal tide, with one high and one low tide per day (By NOAA [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons).
A semidiurnal tide exhibits two high and two low tides each day, with both highs and both lows of toughly equal height (Figure 3.7.2). "Semidiurnal" means "half of a day"; one tidal cycle takes half of a day, therefore there are two complete cycles per day. Semidiurnal tides are common along the east coasts of North America and Australia, the west coast of Africa, and most of Europe.
Figure 3.7.2 A semi-diurnal tide, with two high and two low tides per day, each of roughly equal heights (By NOAA [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons).
Mixed semidiurnal tides (or mixed tides), have two high tides and two low tides per day, but the heights of each tide differs; the two high tides are of different heights, as are the two low tides (Figure 3.7.3). The differences in height may be the result of amphidromic circulation, the angle of the moon, or any of the other variables discussed in section 3.6. Mixed semidiurnal tides are found along the Pacific coast of North America.
Figure 3.7.3 A mixed semi-diurnal tide, with two high and two low tides per day, each with a different height (By NOAA [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons).
Figure 3.7.4 shows the distribution of the various tide types throughout the world.
Figure 3.7.4 Global distribution of the different types of tides (By KVDP (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons).
Tidal Currents
The movement of water with the rising and falling tide creates tidal currents. As the tide rises, water flows into an area, creating a flood current. As the tide falls and water flows out an ebb current is created. Slack water, or slack tides occur during the transition between incoming high and outgoing low tides, when there is no net water movement.
The strength of a tidal current depends on the volume of water that enters and exits with each tidal cycle (the tidal volume or tidal prism), and the area through which the water flows. A large tidal volume moving through a large area may create only a weak tidal current, as the volume is spread over a wide area. On the other hand, a narrow area may produce a strong tidal current even if the tidal volume is small, as all of the water is forced through a small area. It follows that the strongest tidal currents will result from a large tidal range moving through a narrow area.
Tidal bores occur where rivers meet the ocean. If the incoming tidal current is stronger than the river outflow, the tidal bore appears as a wave, or moving wall of water that moves up the river as the tide comes in (Figure 3.7.5).
Figure 3.7.5 A tidal bore near Silverdale in the United Kingdom (Arnold Price [CC BY-SA 2.0], via Wikimedia Commons).
In many cases these tidal bores may move through a river or inlet for many kilometers, and if they are large enough they can form continually breaking waves that surfers can ride much farther and longer than a traditional ocean wave, such as the Severn Bore in England, shown in the video below.
Large waves crashing onto a shore bring a tremendous amount of energy that has a significant eroding effect, and several unique erosion features commonly form on rocky shores with strong waves.
When waves approach an irregular shore, they are slowed down to varying degrees, depending on differences in the water depth, and as they slow, they are bent or refracted (section 3.3). In Figure 4.3.1, wave energy is represented by the blue arrows. That energy is evenly spaced out in the deep water, but because of refraction, the energy of the waves is being focused on the headlands. On irregular coasts, the headlands receive much more wave energy than the intervening bays, and thus they are more strongly eroded. The result of this is coastal straightening, where an irregular coast will eventually become straightened, although that process may take millions of years.
Figure 4.3.1 The approach of waves (blue lines) towards a coastal headland. The blue arrows represent wave energy; most of that energy is focused on the headlands, causing greatest erosion in this area (PW).
Wave erosion is greatest in the surf zone, where the wave base is impinging strongly on the seafloor and where the waves are breaking. The result is that the substrate in the surf zone is typically eroded to a flat surface known as a wave-cut platform (or wave-cut terrace) (Figure 4.3.2). A wave-cut platform extends across the intertidal zone.
Figure 4.3.2 A wave-cut platform in bedded sedimentary rock on Gabriola Island, B.C. The wave-eroded surface is submerged at high tide (Steven Earle, "Physical Geology").
Arches and sea caves form as a result of the erosion of relatively non-resistant rock. Wave action and strong longshore currents can carve a cave into a headland, and if the erosion extends all the way through, it becomes an arch. If a hole develops in the ceiling of a cave, a blowhole can be created, shooting water into the air when waves crash in the cave. An arch in the Barachois River area of western Newfoundland, Canada, is shown in Figure 4.3.3. This feature started out as a sea cave, and then, after being eroded from both sides, became an arch. During the winter of 2012-2013, the arch collapsed, leaving a small stack at the end of the point.
Figure 4.3.3 Top: An arch in tilted sedimentary rock at the mouth of the Barachois River, Newfoundland, July 2012. Bottom: The same location in June 2013. The arch has collapsed and a small stack remains (Photo: Dr. David Murphy, used with permission in Steven Earle, "Physical Geology").
The tower of rock left behind from a collapsed arch is called a sea stack (Figure 4.3.4). But sea stacks can also form during the formation of wave-cut platforms or other features, when relatively resistant rock that does not get completely eroded remains behind to form the stack.
Figure 4.3.4 A sea stack, likely created from the collapse of a sea arch (Doug Lee [CC BY-SA 2.0], via Wikimedia Commons).
Figure 4.3.5 summarizes the process of transformation of an irregular coast into a straightened coast with sea cliffs (wave-eroded escarpments) and the remnants of stacks, arches, and wave-cut platforms. The next stages of this process would be the continued landward erosion of the sea cliffs and the complete erosion of the stacks and wave-cut platforms in favor of a continuous and nearly straight sandy beach.
Figure 4.3.5 Evolution of a straightened coast through the erosion to stacks and arches, sea cliffs, and wave-cut platforms (Steven Earle, "Physical Geology").
Modified from "Physical Geology" by Steven Earle used under a CC-BY 4.0 international license. Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca
Differential heating of the Earth's surface results in equatorial regions receiving more heat than the poles (section 6.1). As air is warmed at the equator it becomes less dense and rises, while at the poles the cold air is denser and sinks. If the Earth was non-rotating, the warm air rising at the equator would reach the upper atmosphere and begin moving horizontally towards the poles. As the air reached the poles it would cool and sink, and would move over the surface of Earth back towards the equator. This would result in one large atmospheric convection cell in each hemisphere (Figure 6.2.1), with air rising at the equator and sinking at the poles, and the movement of air over the Earth's surface creating the winds. On this non-rotating Earth, the prevailing winds would thus blow from the poles towards the equator in both hemispheres (Figure 6.2.1).
Figure 6.2.1 Hypothetical atmospheric convection cells on a non-rotating Earth. Air rises at the equator and sinks at the poles, creating a single convection cell in each hemisphere. The prevailing winds moving over the Earth's surface blow from the poles towards the equator in both hemispheres (Modified by PW from globe image by Location_of_Cape_Verde_in_the_globe.svg: Eddo derivative work: Luan fala! [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons).
The non-rotating situation in Figure 6.2.1 is of course only hypothetical, and in reality the Earth's rotation makes this atmospheric circulation a bit more complex. The paths of the winds on a rotating Earth are deflected by the Coriolis Effect. The Coriolis Effect is a result of the fact that different latitudes on Earth rotate at different speeds. This is because every point on Earth must make a complete rotation in 24 hours, but some points must travel farther, and therefore faster, to complete the rotation in the same amount of time. In 24 hours a point on the equator must complete a rotation distance equal to the circumference of the Earth, which is about 40,000 km. A point right on the poles covers no distance in that time; it just turns in a circle. So the speed of rotation at the equator is about 1600 km/hr, while at the poles the speed is 0 km/hr. Latitudes in between rotate at intermediate speeds; approximately 1400 km/hr at 30o and 800 km/hr at 60o. As objects move over the surface of the Earth they encounter regions of varying speed, which causes their path to be deflected by the Coriolis Effect.
To explain the Coriolis Effect, imagine a cannon positioned at the equator and facing north. Even though the cannon appears stationary to someone on Earth, it is in fact moving east at about 1600 km/hr due to Earth's rotation. When the cannon fires the projectile travels north towards its target; but it also continues to move to the east at 1600 km/hr, the speed it had while it was still in the cannon. As the shell moves over higher latitudes, its momentum carries it eastward faster than the speed at which the ground beneath it is rotating. For example, by 30o latitude the shell is moving east at 1600 km/hr while the ground is moving east at only 1400 km/hr. Therefore, the shell gets "ahead" of its target, and will land to the east of its intended destination. From the point of view of the cannon, the path of the projectile appears to have been deflected to the right (red arrow, Figure 6.2.2). Similarly, a cannon located at 60o and facing the equator will be moving east at 800 km/hr. When its shell is fired towards the equator, the shell will be moving east at 800 km/hr, but as it approaches the equator it will be moving over land that is traveling east faster than the projectile. So the projectile gets "behind" its target, and will land to the west of its destination. But from the point of view of the cannon facing the equator, the path of the shell still appears to have been deflected to the right (green arrow, Figure 6.2.2). Therefore, in the Northern Hemisphere, the apparent Coriolis deflection will always be to the right.
In the Southern Hemisphere the situation is reversed (Figure 6.2.2). Objects moving towards the equator from the south pole are moving from low speed to high speed, so are left behind and their path is deflected to the left. Movement from the equator towards the south pole also leads to deflection to the left. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Coriolis deflection is always to the left from the point of origin.
The magnitude of the Coriolis deflection is related to the difference in rotation speed between the start and end points. Between the poles and 60o latitude, the difference in rotation speed is 800 km/hr. Between the equator and 30o latitude, the difference is only 200 km/hr (Figure 6.2.2). Therefore the strength of the Coriolis Effect is stronger near the poles, and weaker at the equator.
Figure 6.2.2 The Coriolis Effect. Objects moving from the equator towards the poles (red arrows) move into a region of slower rotational speed and their paths are deflected "ahead" of their point of origin. Movement from high latitudes to low latitudes (green arrows) goes from a region of low speed to a region of higher rotation speed, and there is deflection "behind" their point of origin. In the Northern Hemisphere this deflection is always to the right from the point of origin, and in the Southern Hemisphere the deflection is always to the left (Modified by PW from globe image by Location_of_Cape_Verde_in_the_globe.svg: Eddo derivative work: Luan fala! [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons).
Because of the rotation of the Earth and the Coriolis Effect, rather than a single atmospheric convection cell in each hemisphere, there are three major cells per hemisphere. Warm air rising at the equator cools as it moves through the upper atmosphere, and it descends at around 30o latitude. The convection cells created by rising air at the equator and sinking air at 30o are referred to as Hadley Cells, of which there is one in each hemisphere. The cold air that descends at the poles moves over the Earth's surface towards the equator, and by about 60o latitude it begins to rise, creating a Polar Cell between 60o and 90o. Between 30o and 60o lie the Ferrel Cells, composed of sinking air at 30o and rising air at 60o (Figure 6.2.3). With three convection cells in each hemisphere that rotate in alternate directions, the surface winds no longer always blow from the poles towards the equator as in the non-rotating Earth in Figure 6.2.1. Instead, surface winds in both hemispheres blow towards the equator between 90o and 60o latitude, and between 0o and 30o latitude. Between 30o and 60o latitude, the surface winds blow towards the poles (Figure 6.2.3).
Figure 6.2.3 On a rotating Earth, there are three atmospheric convection cells in each hemisphere, leading to alternating bands of surface winds (red arrows) (Modified by PW from globe image by Location_of_Cape_Verde_in_the_globe.svg: Eddo derivative work: Luan fala! [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons).
The surface winds created by the atmospheric convection cells are also influenced by the Coriolis Effect as they change latitudes. The Coriolis Effect deflects the path of the winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Adding this deflection leads to the pattern of prevailing winds illustrated in Figure 6.2.4. Between the equator and 30o latitude are the trade winds; the northeast trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere (note that winds are named based on the direction from which they originate, not where they are going). The westerlies are the dominant winds between 30o and 60o in both hemispheres, and the polar easterlies are found between 60o and the poles.
Figure 6.2.4 The prevailing wind patterns of Earth (Modified by PW from globe image by Location_of_Cape_Verde_in_the_globe.svg: Eddo derivative work: Luan fala! [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons).
In between these wind bands lie regions of high and low pressure. High pressure zones occur where air is descending, while low pressure zones indicate rising air. Along the equator the rising air creates a low pressure region called the doldrums, or the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)(convergence zone because this is where the trade winds converge). At 30o latitude there are high pressure zones of descending air known as the horse latitudes, or the subtropical highs. Finally, at 60o lies another low pressure region called the polar front. It should be noted that these high and low pressure zones are not fixed in place; their latitude fluctuates depending on the season, and these fluctuations have important implications for regional climates.
Doldrums? Horse latitudes? Trade winds?
These may seem like some odd names for these atmospheric phenomena, but many of them can be traced back to maritime traditions and lore.
The doldrums refer to regions of low pressure around the equator. In these areas, air is rising rather than moving horizontally, so these regions commonly encounter very light winds. The lack of wind could leave sailing ships becalmed for days or weeks at a time, which was not good for the morale of the ship's crew.
Like the doldrums the horse latitudes are also areas with light winds, this time due to descending air, which could leave ships becalmed. One explanation for the term "horse latitudes" is that when these ships became stranded they ran the risk of running out of food or water. To conserve these resources, sailors would throw their dead or dying horses overboard, hence the "horse latitudes." Another explanation is that many sailors received part of their pay before a voyage, and often spent it before departing. This meant that they would spend the first part of the voyage working without pay and in debt, a period called the "dead horse" time, which might last for a few months. When they started earning their pay once again, they had a "dead horse" ceremony and threw a pretend horse overboard. The timing of this ceremony often coincided with reaching the horse latitudes, leading to the association of the ceremony with the location. A third explanation is that a ship was referred to as "horsed" when winds were weak and the ship instead had to rely on ocean currents to move them. This could be a common occurrence in the high pressure zones around 30o latitude, so they were referred to as the horse latitudes.
The term trade winds may have originally derived from the terms for "track" or "path", but the term may have become more common during European exploration and commercialization of the New World. Mariners sailing from Europe to the New World could sail south until they reached the trade winds, which would then propel their ships across the Atlantic to the Caribbean. To return to Europe, ships could sail to the northeast until they entered the westerlies, which would then steer them back to Europe.
